Two-dimensional amorphous carbon coating and methods of growing and differentiating stem cells

ABSTRACT

Described is a composite material composed of an atomically thin (single layer) amorphous carbon disposed on top of a substrate (metal, glass, oxides) and methods of growing and differentiating stem cells.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 62/463,112 entitled, “LAYERED COMPOSITE MATERIALCONSISTING ATOMICALLY THIN AMORPHOUS CARBON ON TOP OF THE SUBSTRATE,”filed Feb. 24, 2017, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.62/546,680 entitled, “THERAPEUTIC COATING AND METHODS OF GROWING ANDDIFFERENTIATING STEM CELLS,” filed Aug. 17, 2017. The entire contentsand disclosures of these patent applications are incorporated herein byreference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND Field of the Invention

The present disclosure relates to generally to two-dimensional amorphouscarbon (2DAC) coating and articles and methods of growing anddifferentiating stem cells.

Background of the Invention

A need exists within the prior art to develop and provide suitableapplications for a coating intended for specific purposes such asbiomedical applications.

SUMMARY

According to first broad aspect, the present disclosure provides atwo-dimensional (2D) amorphous carbon film, wherein the 2D amorphouscarbon film has a crystallinity (C)≤0.8.

According to a second broad aspect, the present disclosure provides atwo-dimensional (2D) amorphous carbon film, wherein the 2D amorphouscarbon film has a crystallinity (C)<1 and a sp³/sp² bond ratio is 0.2 orless.

According to a third broad aspect, the present disclosure provides anarticle comprising: a substrate; and a two-dimensional (2D) amorphouscarbon film disposed on a surface of the substrate, wherein the 2Damorphous carbon film has a crystallinity (C)≤0.8.

According to a fourth broad aspect, the present disclosure provides amethod of forming a two-dimensional (2D) amorphous carbon film, themethod comprising: decomposing a precursor gas to generate at least onedecomposed species; and forming the 2D amorphous carbon film from thedecomposed species on a surface of the substrate, wherein the precursorgas comprises a carbon-containing gas.

According to fifth broad aspect, the present disclosure provides atwo-dimensional amorphous carbon (2DAC) coating having an atomicstructure consisting of non-hexagonal carbon rings, and hexagonal carbonrings, and having a ratio of the hexagonal rings to the non-hexagonalrings is less than 1.0.

According to sixth broad aspect, the present disclosure provides amethod of differentiating stem cells into specialized cells, comprising:coating a surface of a substrate with two-dimensional amorphous carbon(2DAC); disposing a seed layer on the surface of the substrate coatedwith 2DAC; and adsorbing growth factors in a stem cell medium onto thesurface of the substrate coated with 2DAC.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and constitutepart of this specification, illustrate exemplary embodiments of theinvention, and, together with the general description given above andthe detailed description given below, serve to explain the features ofthe invention.

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration showing the disclosed compositematerial of the atomically thin film showing random hexagon ringsshowing continuity and order (not graphene), according to one embodimentof the present disclosure.

FIG. 2 illustrates a TEM image of an amorphous film showing the hexagonsand non-hexagons, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3 illustrates a measured thickness of the disclosed carbon film onboron nitride by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), according to oneembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 4 illustrates a Raman spectra of amorphous film andnano-crystalline graphene on SiO₂, according to one embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 5 illustrates TEM diffraction of atomically thin amorphous carbon(left) and graphene (right), according to one embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 6 illustrates the transmittance of the disclosed carbon film,according to one embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7 illustrates a mechanical property of a 2D amorphous film and ademonstration of suspended carbon film, according to one embodiment ofthe present disclosure.

FIG. 8 illustrates electrical properties of a 2D amorphous carbon,according to one embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9 illustrates composite material grown on different substrates,according to one embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10 illustrates X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of a 2Damorphous carbon on Cu, according to one embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 11 shows a water droplet contact angle and XPS for 2DAC, accordingto one embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 12 shows the nano-topographical difference between uncoated glassand 2DAC coated glass, and a Raman spectra of the 2DAC coating,according to one embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 13 shows a mechanism of increased uptake of growth factors in stemcells on a 2DAC coated substrate, according to one embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 14 shows a comparison of the protein uptake on a 2DAC coatedsubstrate and a non-coated substrate, according to one embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 15 shows a comparison of blood clotting prevention on a 2DAC coatedstent and a non-coated stent substrate, according to one embodiment ofthe present disclosure.

FIG. 16 shows a comparison bone tissue-to-implant integration, accordingto one embodiment of the present disclosure. The 2DAC coated implantprovides better integration with the host tissue compared to anon-coated implant.

FIG. 17 shows comparisons for nitric oxide (NO) and TNFα production incells stressed by LPS (Lipopolysaccharides) on a 2DAC coated glasscompared to cells on bare glass, according to one embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Definitions

Where the definition of terms departs from the commonly used meaning ofthe term, applicant intends to utilize the definitions provided below,unless specifically indicated.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as is commonly understood to which the claimedsubject matter belongs. In the event that there is a plurality ofdefinitions for terms herein, those in this section prevail. Allpatents, patent applications, publications and published nucleotide andamino acid sequences (e.g., sequences available in GenBank or otherdatabases) referred to herein are incorporated by reference. Wherereference is made to a URL or other such identifier or address, it isunderstood that such identifiers can change and particular informationon the internet can come and go, but equivalent information can be foundby searching the internet. Reference thereto evidences the availabilityand public dissemination of such information.

It is to be understood that the foregoing general description and thefollowing detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only andare not restrictive of any subject matter claimed. In this application,the use of the singular includes the plural unless specifically statedotherwise. It must be noted that, as used in the specification and theappended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include pluralreferents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. In thisapplication, the use of “or” means “and/or” unless stated otherwise.Furthermore, use of the term “including” as well as other forms, such as“include”, “includes,” and “included,” is not limiting.

For purposes of the present disclosure, the term “comprising”, the term“having”, the term “including,” and variations of these words areintended to be open-ended and mean that there may be additional elementsother than the listed elements.

For purposes of the present disclosure, directional terms such as “top,”“bottom,” “upper,” “lower,” “above,” “below,” “left,” “right,”“horizontal,” “vertical,” “up,” “down,” etc., are used merely forconvenience in describing the various embodiments of the presentdisclosure. The embodiments of the present disclosure may be oriented invarious ways. For example, the diagrams, apparatuses, etc., shown in thedrawing figures may be flipped over, rotated by 90° in any direction,reversed, etc.

For purposes of the present disclosure, a value or property is “based”on a particular value, property, the satisfaction of a condition, orother factor, if that value is derived by performing a mathematicalcalculation or logical decision using that value, property or otherfactor.

For purposes of the present disclosure, it should be noted that toprovide a more concise description, some of the quantitative expressionsgiven herein are not qualified with the term “about.” It is understoodthat whether the term “about” is used explicitly or not, every quantitygiven herein is meant to refer to the actual given value, and it is alsomeant to refer to the approximation to such given value that wouldreasonably be inferred based on the ordinary skill in the art, includingapproximations due to the experimental and/or measurement conditions forsuch given value.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “adhesion strength”refers to the strength of the bonding between the disclosed 2DAC film toits growth substrate. It is directly dependent on the adhesion energybetween these two materials, which may be measured in J/m².

For purposes of the present invention, the term “amorphous” refers tolacking definite form or having no specific shape or being formless. Asa non-crystalline solid, amorphous refers to a solid that lacks thelong-range order that is characteristic of a crystal.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “amorphous carbon”refers to carbon that does not have any long range crystallinestructure.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “atomically thinamorphous carbon” refers to amorphous carbon that consist ofapproximately one to five layers of carbon atoms in a plane, withpredominantly sp² bonding between the carbon atoms and thus forming alayer. It should be appreciated that layers may be stacked, and thisstacking of layers is considered within the scope of the invention.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “carbon coating” refersto a layer of carbon deposited on a substrate.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “contact anglemeasurement” refers to a technique to measure the hydrophobicity of asurface. In an exemplary disclosed embodiment of a water droplet, thisangle may be measured from the surface to the water-air interface. Asmall angle means that the surface favorably attracts water and a largeangle suggests that the surface repels water. This is important in thepatent as certain cells favor a hydrophilic (small contact angle)surface for growth.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “diamond-like carbon”refers to amorphous carbon that consist of predominantly sp³ bondingbetween carbon atoms.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “differentiating stemcells” refers to the process of directing an unspecialized stem celltowards a specific type of cell with functional traits. In disclosedembodiments, the differentiation occurs due to a combination of chemicaland substrate induced factors.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “DIG ratio” refers tothe ratio of the intensities of the D and G peak in the Raman spectrum.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “graphene” refers to anallotrope (form) of carbon consisting of a single layer of carbon atomsarranged in a hexagonal lattice. It is the basic structural element ofmany other allotropes of carbon, such as graphite, charcoal, carbonnanotubes and fullerenes. It can be considered as an indefinitely largearomatic molecule, the ultimate case of the family of flat polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons. Graphene has many unusual properties includingits strong materials properties, ability to efficiently conduct heat andelectricity and is also nearly transparent.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “implant coating” refersto an additional layer covering the entirety or parts of the surface ofa biomedical implant. An implant may also be refer to a cardiovascularstent or orthopedic implant but are not limited to these exemplaryimplants.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “organic light-emittingdiode” (OLED) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissiveelectroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound that emits lightin response to an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductoris situated between two electrodes; typically, at least one of theseelectrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays,for example, in devices such as television screens, computer monitors,portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld game consoles, personaldigital assistants (PDAs) and handheld personal computers.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “photolyticdecomposition” refers to the use of one or more photons to induce achemical reaction of a molecule to break down into simpler particles.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “proton transport”refers to the transport of the proton across an electrically insulatingmembrane.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “Raman spectroscopy”refers to a spectroscopic technique used to observe vibrational,rotational, and other low-frequency modes in a system. Ramanspectroscopy is commonly used in chemistry to provide a structuralfingerprint by which molecules can be identified. It relies on inelasticscattering, or Raman scattering, of monochromatic light, usually from alaser in the visible, near infrared, or near ultraviolet range. Thelaser light interacts with molecular vibrations, phonons or otherexcitations in the system, resulting in the energy of the laser photonsbeing shifted up or down. The shift in energy gives information aboutthe vibrational modes in the system.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “Raman spectrum” refersto a phenomenon of scattering intensity as a function of frequencyshifts depending on rovibronic states of a molecule. For a molecule toexhibit a Raman effect, there must be a change in its electricdipole-electric dipole polarizability with respect to the vibrationalcoordinate corresponding to the rovibronic state. The intensity of theRaman scattering is proportional to this polarizability change.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “ratio of sp^(a)/sp²”refers to the type of carbon bonds found in the 2DAC. The sp² bondsallow for higher growth factor bonding.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “substrate” refers tothe structural support for the disclosed two-dimensional (2D) amorphouscarbon film. In select applications, disclosed embodiments provide asubstrate to mechanically support, for example, the 2DAC film as,otherwise, the 2DAC film may be too thin to perform its function withoutgetting damaged. The substrate may be regarded as the material used forgrowth of the disclosed 2DAC or 2DAC film on the surface of thesubstrate.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “thrombosis” refers tothe formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, obstructing theflow of blood through the circulatory system.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “two-dimensional (2D)amorphous carbon film” refers to atomically thin amorphous carbon to thethinnest amorphous carbon possible (e.g., single atom thick) that can begrown directly, for example, on substrates including those having lowmelting temperature, are non-catalytic, and those substrates alsoincluding metal, glass and oxides surfaces. The growth on othersubstrates is made possible due to the low temperature at which thedisclosed 2DAC film is grown. Disclosed embodiments of 2DAC film may bepresented as a free-standing film or as a coating on a substrate asdisclosed herein. Although the disclosed 2DAC film is amorphous, thecarbon atoms bond to multiple adjacent carbon atoms in plane to form astrong network, which is very stable even when it is released from itsgrowth substrate (free-standing). The carbon material also possessesproperties for adhering to metal surfaces well, thereby ensuring fullcoverage across the substrate. The intrinsic thinness and the highstrength of the disclosed 2DAC thin film also allow it to withstandbending of the metal substrate without breaking.

For purposes of the present invention, the term “two-dimensional (2D)amorphous carbon coating” refers to a 2DAC film directly grown and/ordeposited on a substrate. Disclosed embodiments may also include thecase where the 2DAC coating is transferred onto or off the substrate.

DESCRIPTION

While the invention is susceptible to various modifications andalternative forms, specific embodiment thereof has been shown by way ofexample in the drawings and will be described in detail below. It shouldbe understood, however that it is not intended to limit the invention tothe particular forms disclosed, but on the contrary, the invention is tocover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling withinthe spirit and the scope of the invention.

Disclosed embodiments relate to a new composite material composed of anatomically thin (single layer) amorphous carbon on top of a substrate(metal, glass, oxides). The amorphous carbon adheres very well to thesubstrate upon which it is grown. Thus, the amorphous carbon materialprovides unique characteristics. For example, the disclosed amorphouscarbon material is suitable for applications that utilize a substraterequiring a coating for a specific purpose(s). Exemplary applicationsmay include, but not limited to, biomedical applications.

The present disclosure provides a new form of carbon referred to astwo-dimensional (2D) amorphous carbon (2DAC). Disclosed embodimentsprovide the thinnest amorphous carbon possible (e.g., approximatelysingle atom thick) within the 2DAC that can be grown, for instance,directly on metallic substrates including those having low meltingtemperature, are non-catalytic, and also including glass and oxidessurfaces. In one select embodiment, having a single atom thickness is apreferred material and may establish a lower thickness limit for the2DAC. Disclosed embodiments may include a thickness that may range up toa few atom thickness (e.g., 10 atomic thickness or about 3+nm). Thedisclosed 2DAC may be provided as a two-dimensional (2D) amorphouscarbon film. It remains important to note, however, that as thethickness of the disclosed 2DAC increases, it remains structurallydifferent (e.g., sp³ to sp² ratio) from any other possibly existingamorphous carbon material thickness, as disclosed herein.

The growth on other substrates is made possible due to the lowtemperature at which the disclosed 2DAC film is grown. Although thedisclosed 2DAC film is amorphous, the carbon atoms bond to multipleadjacent carbon atoms in plane to form a strong network, which is verystable even when it is released from its growth substrate(free-standing). Thus, each carbon atom is bonded to multiple carbonatoms such that there is a high density of bonds (connections). Thedisclosed 2DAC also possesses properties for adhering to metal surfaceswell, thereby ensuring full coverage. Material properties (e.g.,disclosed below), such as the intrinsic thinness and the high strengthof the disclosed 2DAC thin film, also allow it to withstand bending ofthe metal substrate without breaking.

In accordance with disclosed embodiments, amorphous carbon may bedefined as a form of carbon with no long-range structural order. Itexists in several forms and, depending on its form, is often called indifferent names like diamond-like carbon, glassy carbon, soot, etc.Amorphous carbon may be produced by several techniques including, forexample, chemical vapor deposition, sputter deposition, and cathodic arcdeposition among others. In convention applications, amorphous carbonhas always existed in three-dimensional form (or in bulk). Thetwo-dimensional equivalent form of carbon is graphene; however, grapheneonly exists as a crystalline material (either single crystal orpolycrystalline). For graphene to be synthesized, it requires hightemperatures and is mostly grown on copper. As per this disclosure,disclosed embodiments have managed to create a continuoustwo-dimensional form of amorphous carbon that is grown at a much lowertemperature and on arbitrary substrates. The composite material of thedisclosed 2DAC film and substrate has characteristics that are vastlydifferent from the bulk amorphous carbon, and even to single layergraphene.

FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic 100 of the disclosed composite materialswith a TEM image of the carbon material on a top surface of a substrate.The composition of the disclosed matter is a new composite material ofan atomically thin amorphous carbon 102 on top of a substrate 104 (e.g.,metal or glass, oxides).

The disclosed composite material may refer to an atomically thin 2Damorphous carbon (2DAC) on top of an arbitrary substrate. In accordancewith disclosed embodiments, the disclosed 2DAC film on top of thedisclosed substrate may be defined in terms of its atomic structure andits properties.

A closer examination and definition for the atomic structure may bepresented as follows: FIG. 2 illustrates a TEM image of an amorphousfilm showing the hexagons and non-hexagons, according to one embodimentof the present disclosure. The upper left image of FIG. 2 illustrates ahigh resolution TEM image of the disclosed 2DAC film comprising hexagonsand non-hexagons. A lower left schematic of the TEM image of the upperleft image is provided to aid in viewing. Hexagons are colored in green,while non-hexagons are colored in either red or blue. The upper rightdisplay is an FFT illustrating which shows a ring structure with noclear diffraction patterns.

Referring to the TEM image of FIG. 2, a 2DAC film is a single-atom thickcarbon film having a mixture of hexagon and non-hexagon rings in itsstructure. The rings are fully connected to each other, forming anetwork of polygons in large area film whose scale is at least inmicrons. The ratio of hexagons to non-hexagons is a measure ofcrystallinity (or amorphousity), C. Non-hexagons are in a form of 4-,5-, 7-, 8-, 9-membered rings. A 2D amorphous film has C≤0.8, taken on aminimum imaged area of approximately 8.0 nm². The C value in FIG. 2 isapproximately 0.65. Disclosed embodiments may support a C value rangebetween and including 0.5 to 0.8. This is different from graphene whereC=1 for pure hexagonal network. The non-hexagons can be randomlydistributed within the hexagonal matrix, or form along the boundaries ofthe hexagonal domains. The domains must not be greater than 5 nm. Thefast Fourier transform (FFT) of the image must not show diffractionspots (FIG. 2, upper right). The 2DAC can be released from a substrateto be free-standing or can be transferred to other substrates. Thus, insome embodiments, the disclosed 2DAC may be separating from the surfaceof the substrate to obtain a free-standing 2DAC film. FIG. 3 illustratesa measured thickness (i.e., the height) of the isolated disclosed 2DACfilm on boron nitride (BN) by AFM. Based on the disclosed invention, thefollowing properties apply: FIG. 3 shows the AFM of the disclosedtransferred 2DAC film to boron nitride (BN). The disclosed thickness ofthe 2DAC is approximately 6 Å, comparable to graphene which is only oneatomic thick (thickness ranges from and including 3.3 Å to 10 Å whenmeasured on BN). The thickness is also corroborated by the TEM image inFIG. 1. Further, the film is found to be homogenous. FIG. 4 illustratesRaman spectra 400 of amorphous film and non-crystalline graphene onSiO₂. Raman spectroscopy of the isolated film showed no 2D peak (2700cm-1), but instead showed broad G (at ˜1600 cm-1) and D peaks (at ˜1350cm-1). The broadening of D and G peaks usually indicates a transitionfrom nanocrystalline graphene to amorphous film as was previouslyreported.¹ From the intensity ratio of the D and G peaks, the domainsize is estimated to be in the order of 1-5 nm.¹ Raman spectroscopyserves as a characterization tool to represent the TEM image in FIG. 2in large area.

FIG. 5 provides a comparison 500 of TEM diffraction of atomically thinamorphous carbon (left) and graphene (right), according to oneembodiment of the present disclosure. Further evidence on the amorphousnature of the disclosed isolated film is corroborated by the TEMdiffraction, where no clear diffraction spots are detected which is incontrast to graphene wherein diffraction spots are clearly seenindicating crystallinity. The diffraction rings in FIG. 7 (top)indicates a domain size of <5 nm. The diffraction data of the amorphousfilm is consistent with the FFT image in FIG. 2. In this case, the 2DACfilm is free-standing.

Turning to FIG. 6, a graph 600 illustrates the transparency of thedisclosed carbon film, according to one embodiment of the presentdisclosure. The optical transparency is at 98% at 550 nm lightwavelength, increasing in transparency with increasing wavelength. Thus,select embodiments provide an optical transparency equal to or greaterthan 98% at a wavelength of 550 nm or higher. Again, the disclosedcarbon film differs from graphene as the transparency of graphene at asingle layer is at a maximum of 97.7% throughout the visible wavelength(400 nm-700 nm, inclusive), and decreases as the number of layerincreases. Notably the transparency of the 2DAC film does not decreaserapidly at short wavelengths (<400 nm) as seen in graphene.

The elastic modulus, E, of the suspended film is above 200 GPa, higherthan bulk glassy carbon (E=60 GPa).² The ultimate strain beforemechanical failure is 10%, much higher than that of other amorphouscarbon reported. FIG. 7 illustrates non-indentation on suspended carbonfilm and suspended carbon film after exertion of ultimate stress by anAtomic Force Microscope (AFM) (e.g., Bruker model no: MPP-11120) tip.The amorphous property of the disclosed 2DAC film prevents collapse ofthe suspended film in FIG. 7 (bottom). Instead, the film displays aductile response to ultimate stress levels.

The 2DAC thin film of the disclosed invention is highly resistive withelectrical resistivity ranging from 0.01 to 1000 Ω-cm, depending on thevalue of C, which is tuned by the growth conditions. FIG. 8 is aschematic illustration 800 of electrical properties of a 2D amorphouscarbon, showing an I-V curve 802 of the 2D amorphous film and ahistogram 804 of the measured resistivity values for a particular Cvalue. A measurement technique/method is used towards generating aresistivity value. A ratio is used within the calculation from the dataof I-V curve 802 to obtain each resistivity data point in histogram 804.Accordingly, length: width ratio for the 2D amorphous carbon in FIG. 8,left is 1:100. In comparison, graphene has resistivity value of ˜10⁻⁶Ω-cm while bulk glassy carbon (also 100% C—C sp²) has values rangingfrom 0.01 to 0.001 Ω-cm.

The monolayer film, containing n-membered rings >6, is naturally amembrane that can selectively pass gases, ions, liquids or other specieswhose sizes are small enough to pass through the 7-, 8-, 9-memberedrings. In particular, the disclosed 2DAC film can pass through proton10× more efficient than crystalline monolayer boron nitride at roomtemperature.³ For the disclosed 2DAC film, the resistivity to protonflow across the membrane is from 1-10 Ω-cm² at room temperature.

FIG. 9 illustrates composite material grown on different substrates,according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. Pictures oftitanium, glass and copper coated with atomically thin amorphous carbonare illustrated on the left. In the upper right, shown is the Ramanspectra from the coated regions showing similar response irrespectivelyof the substrate. Finally, in the lower right, shown is the Raman map ofG/D peak ratio of the 2DAC film on top of the titanium shown its fullcoverage. The disclosed composite material (i.e., the disclosed 2DAC andthe substrate) can be created from any metal (catalytic ornon-catalytic) or on glass or oxides. Thus, disclosed embodimentsprovide that the 2DAC may be grown directly on any of the discloseddesired substrate materials. This is different from graphene, which canonly be grown on a catalytic substrate, e.g., copper, and requirestransfer to all other substrates. Accordingly, compared to depositionmethods of amorphous or diamond-like carbon, whose thickness cannotexist lower than 1 nm to still be considered continuous, the disclosedcomposite material comprises an atomically thin (<1 nm) and continuouslayer of two dimensional amorphous carbon that is strongly bonded to ahost substrate.

In general, when a film on a substrate has poor adhesion, areas of thefilm may become detached from the substrate and, therefore, will providepoor or little protection of the substrate. Accordingly, embodiments ofthe present disclosure provide an improved film which providesuniformity and strong adhesion over the entire applied surface of asubstrate. Accordingly, the disclosed 2DAC film is formed as acontinuous film over, preferably, substantially the entire substratesurface or at least the applied surface. Unlike conventional designs,such as graphene, for example, in Cu, which can be detached easily(e.g., the adhesion force is from 10-100 J/m2), the disclosed atomicallythin 2DAC film disposed, for example, on Cu adheres very well to thesubstrate with an adhesion energy>200 J/m2.⁴ This example providesfurther evidence to differentiate the disclosed 2DAC film from graphene.(While an exemplary embodiment of a Cu substrate is described,embodiments of applying the disclosed 2DAC to any substrate may beapplied in accordance with disclosed embodiments of the invention.)Furthermore, the adhesion energy is evident in all substrate materialsonto which the disclosed 2DAC film is grown including, for examples,stainless steel, titanium, glass, nickel, and aluminum substrates. Itshould be appreciated that the above substrates are exemplary and theteachings of this disclosure may be applied to any substrate desired.

In general, any attempts for transferring any 2D material to a materialby convention materials and processes have previously led to defects andcracks, for example, in the transferred material(s) and also a reductionof coverage on the substrate. This is, at least in part, due to the factthat the transfer process generally employs many mechanical steps andmay use chemicals that induce cracks and defects in conventional filmapplications. The disclosed 2DAC film, however, does not need to betransferred, for example, from a growth substrate to a target substrate.In addition to the improved adhesion properties of the disclosed 2DACfilm, enhanced characteristics of the disclosed 2DAC film provide andensure consistent and full coverage directly across/over the substrate.Consistent and full coverage is thereby obtained, at least, because,there is no need to transfer the disclosed 2DAC film, since it is fullycapable of consistently and successfully being grown directly on itshost substrate.

Designed to provide such dependable coverage, together, along with itssuperior mechanical properties for adhesion to substrates (such ascarbon), the disclosed 2DAC film is very suitable and dependable forapplications that require additional physicalcharacteristics/requirements of the 2DAC film and composite. Suchphysical characteristics may include the ability of the disclosed 2DACfilm and/or composite to bend and/or stretch. The adhesion propertiesand ability of the disclosed 2DAC to the substrate ensures this is thecase. If there is non-uniform adhesion to the substrate, like fortransferred films, cracks in the film will form at regions of pooradhesion and are causes prone to failure.

Accordingly, embodiments of the disclosed invention provide the topamorphous carbon film 102 covering the whole substrate 104 upon which itis grown (Raman map of FIG. 9) making it very useful for applicationsthat require, for example, carbon coating. The top amorphous carbon film102 also serves as a diffusion barrier without defects therebypreventing the underlying substrate from oxidation and corrosion. Due toelectrically insulating properties, the disclosed amorphous carbon film102 prevents any galvanic corrosion of substrate 104. The low electricalconductivity of the disclosed 2DAC is beneficial to cell attachment andproliferation as observed in recent reports.¹⁷ Cells on conductivesubstrates adhere to the surface through electrostatic interactionswithout creating focal adhesions. Focal adhesions are crucial to cellproliferation and growth and a low electrical conductivity is preferredfor focal adhesion development and cell proliferation. The lowelectrical conductivity is a consequence of the amorphous nature of thedisclosed 2DAC as observed through the Raman spectroscopy D/G peakintensity and the sp³/sp² ratio.

In contrast, graphene is known to worsen long term corrosion.⁵ Thetransfer of graphene makes it nearly impossible to create a flatcontinuous film without creating cracks and defects along the surface.The disclosed amorphous carbon film 102 material is a composite withsubstrate 104, hereby eliminating the need for transfer as well asremoving the risk of cracks in the film 102.

The disclosed 2DAC film consists of sp²-bonded carbon similar to glassycarbon; however the thickness is only approximately one atomic layerthick (6 Å), thinner than any conventional reported amorphous carbonstructure. FIG. 10 illustrates the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS) measurement of 2D amorphous carbon on Cu, where the peak positionindicates the sp² or sp³ bonding type while the peak intensity indicatesthe fraction of each type of bonds. A mix concentration of C—C sp² andsp³ bonding is also possible without sacrificing the thickness, thoughthe maximum C—C sp³ content is set to 20%. The thin structure and strongadhesion of the disclosed 2DAC intrinsically protects the underlyingsubstrate all the time, unlike in thicker films where the possibility offlaking off is evident.⁶

According to disclosed embodiments, a laser-based growth process, usinghydrocarbons as precursors (such as CH₄, C₂H₂, etc.) produces thedisclosed composite film. Hydrogen gas (H₂) and Argon gas (Ar) may alsobe mixed with the precursor. In this process, the laser has two roles:(1) an energy source to breakdown the precursor gas in a process calledphotolytic decomposition; and (2) as a local heat source. Assuming thatone or both aforementioned roles produces the disclosed 2DAC film: inthe first case, the substrate 104 is said to be at room temperaturethroughout the growth; in the second case, the laser can heat up thesubstrate 104 up to 500° C. Typically, a pulsed excimer UV laser (e.g.,193, 248 or 308 nm) can be directed onto or parallel to the substrate ata fluence from about 50-1000 mJ/cm² at different growth times, dependingon the employed substrate. Other possible combinations to produce thedisclosed composite may include utilizing any combination of a laser,plasma, and/or a substrate heater. A heater may be employed to heat thesubstrate 104 up to 500° C. Plasma power may be used in the range of andincluding 1-100 W. A typical combination using hydrocarbon as precursorwill be as follows: (i) Laser only; (ii) Laser+low power plasma (5 W);(iii) Laser+low power plasma (5 W)+heater (300° C.-500° C.); (iv) Lowpower plasma (5 W)+500° C. heater; (v) High power plasma (100 W) only.

Accordingly to disclosed embodiments, the entire growth/deposition ofthe disclosed 2DAC and 2DAC composite may be performed within a chamber.Modules for heating, plasma, gas flow and pressure control may all beset and established within the chamber for the controlled growthenvironment. According to one embodiment, the process pressure of thechamber may be established in a range of, and including, 10 to 1E-4mbar.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Example Subject Matter

The process parameters for the disclosed 2DAC may include the following:(i) process gas: CH4 (ii) chamber pressure: 2.0 E-2 mbar; (iii) laserfluence: 70 mJ/cm²; (iv) growth time: 1 min; (v) plasma power: 5 W; (vi)substrate: Cu foil.

A process for producing the disclosed 2DAC film of Example 1 employs theuse of methane (CH4) within the growth chamber for the growth process.The gas pressure within the chamber during the growth is controlled at 2E-2 mbar throughout. This gas is in the presence of a plasma generatoroperating at 5 W power. The growth starts when the 248 nm excimer laseris exposed on the surface of the copper foil substrate with a fluence of70 mJ/cm² with a pulse frequency of 50 Hz. The laser exposure time(i.e., growth duration) is set at 1 min to obtain a continuous 2DACcoating on the substrate. In this growth, the stage heater is not used.Multiple parameters disclosed herein may be adjusted, for controllingand/or changing the properties of the disclosed 2DAC including, but notlimited to, hydrocarbons as precursors, precursor mixes, adjustments tothe photolytic decomposition process and equipment, temperatureregulations, substrate temperature adjustment, the change in C value,change in number of atomic layers, change in sp² to sp^(a) ratio, andchange in adhesion to substrate.

Advantages of the disclosed embodiments may be implemented in a widevariety of applications. In one application, biological implants areused to treat several diseases including, for example, coronary heartdisease, physical trauma and dental decay. A key part of a functioningbiological implant is compatibility with the surrounding tissue. Commonissues with implants may include rejection by a host tissue,inflammation and blood thrombosis. Coating a metal implant with a carboncoating has been shown to render such devices biocompatible therebyreducing the effects of the aforementioned complications. Attempts toprovide prior-art coatings have suffered from long-term degradation forvarious reasons including detachment of the coating and/or mechanicalbreakage of the coating itself. This may lead to several medical issuessuch as thrombogenisis of cardiac stents⁷ as well as corrosion andmechanical failure of stents and bone implants.⁸ The composite describedby the present disclosure may be constructed of metal, glass, ceramics,and/or plastic 104 and atomically thin carbon film 102 thereby makingthe substrate material biocompatible and ready for several biomedicalapplications. These biomedical applications may include applications asin stents, screws, heart valves, dental implants, etc. The thickness ofprior art coatings causes stress-mismatch in specific biomedicalapplications such as during bending of stents. The aforementionedstress-mismatch may cause cracks in the coating, for example, ofbiomedical devices and produce incomplete coverage to the surface of thesame.

The disclosed carbon film may be constructed with minimal thicknessthereby ensuring that the disclosed metal surface of the substrate isconsistently and completely covered during the lifetime of appliedusage. In one exemplary embodiment, the disclosed 2DAC thickness may bedesigned at approximately one atomic layer thick. The disclosed carbonfilm 102 may be grown directly on several substrates 104, for example,such as those already employed in biomedical applications such asstainless steel and titanium materials. Since the growth is done at muchlower temperature than, for example, graphene synthesis, the disclosed2DAC may be grown directly to other substrates 104 that cannot withstandhigh temperature like glasses and hard discs.⁹ The disclosed 2DAC film102 is ultra-strong and is strongly bounded to the substrate 104 makingit suitable for applications that may require deformation such asbending and stretching. The strong mechanical properties of thedisclosed 2DAC film is due to its lack of grain boundaries. Theinsulating property of the disclosed carbon film 102 prevents galvaniccorrosion of the substrate 104 unlike graphene which enhances thecorrosion. The 7-, 8-, and 9-membered rings of the carbon film, as seenin the TEM image, is useful as an efficient membrane for gases or forproton transport.³

Disclosed embodiments of the carbon film 102 and substrate 104 may beemployed in other applications including, but not limited to: biomedicaltechnologies, for example, exercising the use of metals requiring carboncoating for biocompatibility. Exemplary embodiments may include beingutilized as stents, dental implants (e.g., teeth), orthopedic implantsetc. Aside from implants, disclosed embodiments may be used as a culturesubstrate for stem cells and muscle growth. In yet another embodiment,the disclosed carbon film and substrate material may be useful as anultra-thin anti-corrosion coating for high density hard discs. Inanother application, the disclosed carbon film and substrate materialmay be utilized as an efficient gas membrane or for proton transport.Any limitation of the disclosed coating is the discrete nature of theapplication itself, i.e., the metal is either carbon coated or not.

According to select embodiments of the disclosed invention, thedisclosed 2DAC may be generated as a free-standing case, for example,when a substrate is not suitable to be grown on, and hence the disclosed2DAC needs to be transferred. However, advantages of the presentdisclosure provide that the disclosed 2DAC is directly grown on asubstrate. Such benefits of the disclosed 2DAC film compared, forexample, to graphene for the transfer process is that the disclosed 2DACfilm does not require a sacrificial support layer for transfer (unlikegraphene). With graphene, the film layer is required to prevent cracksand defects during the transfer, and the film layer needs to be removedafter. Even with removal, there residues remain from the sacrificiallayer that cannot be completely removed. With the disclosed 2DAC, thetransfer can be done without the sacrificial layer, without inducingdefects and without dealing with residues or compromising the structure.

Competing methods include drug eluting polymer coatings, which canincrease biocompatibility and help medicate the local region. Increasedcoating of these polymers, for example, by the disclosed 2DAC, may carryincreased amount of drugs and therefore have an advantage over thecarbon coating.

As mentioned earlier, an important application of the disclosed carbonfilm and substrate material in a biomedical application includes anapplication in stem cell and muscle growth. The use of stem cells intissue engineering has in recent years received enormous interest due tothe therapeutic and regenerative potential of these cells. Thispotential arises from a combination of prolonged self-renewal in anundifferentiated state and the pluripotency of the cells, namely theability to differentiate into several different lineages. The stem cellscan differentiate into all somatic cells in the body. A cell harvestedfrom the bone marrow of a patient could thus be used to treat andregenerate damaged tissue and organs.

Growing and maintaining stem cells in an undifferentiated state is adifficult and slow procedure by current state of the art methods.Furthermore, the current techniques utilize mouse embryonic fibroblastlayers or gelatinous protein mixture secreted by mouse tumor cells(Matrigel), thereby introducing xenogeneic proteins. The techniques arethus not suitable for therapeutic efforts due to the risk of xenogeneiccontamination.

The growth of stem cells on feeder cells is both a complicated procedureand unsuited for clinical use. The complications arise from thelaborious preparation procedure, high cost and batch-to-batchvariability in the outcome. The stem cells are not suitable for clinicaluse due to possible xenogeneic or viral contamination from the feederlayer.

Commitment to specific lineage depends on several factors arising fromthe local environment such as mechanical rigidity of the extracellularmatrix (ECM), chemical growth factors and neighboring cells.^(10, 11)Controlling the fate of the stem cells is a critical goal to reach forthe use of stem cells in a clinical setting. While biochemical inducershave shown to be able to activate pathways directing the lineage of thecells¹², recent research has shown promise by simply modifying themechanical environment of the cells, hereby activating cues for the cellto commit to specific lineages.^(13, 14, 15)

Further, the differentiation and growth of stem cells is often inhibiteddue to a lack of bioactive substrates.

Lastly, chemical factors such as BMP-2 are a labor intensive becausethey are required to be administered every 3 days during cell culture,thereby increasing the material costs, interaction with the cells, andlabor costs.

Example embodiments of the disclosed invention provide a two-dimensionalamorphous carbon (2DAC) bioactive substrate coating and methods ofgrowing and differentiating stem cells.

Example embodiments of the disclosed invention provide a 2DAC coatinghaving an atomic structure consisting of non-hexagonal carbon rings andhexagonal carbon rings, wherein a ratio of the hexagonal rings to thenon-hexagonal rings is equal to or less than 0.8.

According to example embodiments of the disclosed invention, the coatingof implants with 2DAC can enhance the biocompatibility and reduceinflammation of the host tissue.

According to example embodiments of the disclosed invention, the coatingof substrates with 2DAC can prevent bacterial growth and can reducebacterial infections at the site of an implant.

Example embodiments of the disclosed invention provide a method ofgrowing stem cells, including coating a surface of a substrate with2DAC, seeding an initial concentration of stem cells on the surface ofthe substrate coated with 2DAC, and growing additional stem cells fromthe seeded stem cells until a desired concentration of the stem cells isreached.

In one example the stem cells are seeded onto the disclosed 2DAC coatedsurface at a density of 10,000 cells/cm² in low-glucose Dulbecco'smodified eagle medium with 10% FBS, 1% penicillin, 1% non-essentialamino acids and 1% sodium pyruvate. The cells are cultured at 37° C. and5% CO2. The coating may be referred to as directly growing on the 2DAC.Thus, an implant coating is established on the disclosed 2DAC coatedsurface. The medium is replaced every 3 days until desired concentrationis reached. In some disclosed embodiments, the implant can be a coronarystent, dental implant, orthopedic implants, etc.

The seeded cells have a better recovery rate on the disclosed 2DACsurfaces compared to other cell culture surfaces. The cells display afaster rate of attachment to the disclosed 2DAC compared to othersubstrates or standard tissue culture substrates, thereby reducing thecell death occurring from a lack of anchorage. The implant coating mayform a contact angle with the surface of the implant. In some disclosedembodiments, the contact angle of the 2DAC surface is betweenapproximately 30-65 degrees and is optimal for cell growth.

Example embodiments of the disclosed invention provide a method ofdifferentiating stem cells into specialized cells, including coating asurface of a substrate with 2DAC, seeding an initial concentration ofstem cells on the surface of the substrate coated with 2DAC, andadsorbing growth factors in a stem cell medium onto the surface of thesubstrate coated with the disclosed 2DAC. Accordingly, growth factorsare automatically adsorbed onto the surface of the disclosed 2DAC duringculturing cells. Disclosed embodiments provide that growth factors areautomatically adsorbed onto the disclosed 2DAC surface at a higher rateas compared to a non-coated surface.

In one example the stem cells are differentiated towards osteogeniclineage by adding dexamethasone, L glutamine, ascorbic acid andβ-glycerophosphate to the medium. The cells are cultured at 37° C. and5% CO2. The medium is replaced every 3 days.

The growth factors are adsorbed onto the disclosed 2DAC surface at ahigher rate compared to a non-coated surface. The free pi-orbitals ofthe sp² bonded carbon atoms in the disclosed 2DAC create bonds with theosteogenic factors dexamethasone and (3-glycerophosphate. Thisadsorption increases the availability of the factors driving theosteogenic differentiation to the stem cells, leading to increaseduptake and differentiation in the cells.

According to example embodiments of the disclosed invention, thesubstrate can be materials for in vitro or in vivo stem cell growth anddifferentiation.

According to example embodiments of the disclosed invention, thedisclosed 2DAC enhances the bioactivity of the substrate and acceleratesthe differentiation of the stem cell.

Example embodiments of the disclosed invention provide a 2DAC bioactivesubstrate coating that enhances biocompatibility between host tissue andan implant, and/or reduces inflammation of the host tissue.

Example embodiments of the disclosed invention provide a 2DACantibacterial coating that reduces bacteria attachment andproliferation.

Example embodiments of the disclosed invention provide a method ofgrowing stem cells that sustains xenogeneic-free growth andproliferation of stem cells, and accelerates the differentiation intospecific lineage.

Example embodiments of the disclosed invention relate to an article andmethod of sustaining stem cells in an un-differentiated state, anarticle and method of inducing differentiation of stem cells toward aspecific lineage and a coating for biomedical implants.

The article consists of a coating of the disclosed 2DAC on an arbitrarysubstrate (metal, glass, plastic) as described in the patent document byOrofeo et al. entitled “Layered composite material consisting atomicallythin amorphous carbon on top of the substrate” (the entire contents anddisclosures of this patent document is incorporated herein by referencein its entirety) and coats the entirety of the surface. The disclosed2DAC is a single layer of carbon atoms in a non-crystalline structure,having a C-value below or equal to 0.8. The C-value is a ratio of thehexagonal rings to the non-hexagonal rings.

FIG. 11 shows a contact angle and XPS for 2DAC.

Referring to FIG. 11, a contact angle for 2DAC is about 60 degree, whichis lower than the 90 degree contact angle reported for graphene.

The ratio of sp³/sp² refers to the type of carbon bonds found in thedisclosed 2DAC. The sp² bonds allow for higher growth factor bonding.The XPS for 2DAC in FIG. 11 confirms that the sp³/sp² bond ratio is 0.2or less.

FIG. 12 shows the nano-topographical difference between uncoated glassand 2DAC coated glass. Referring to FIG. 12, the disclosed coatingcreates a roughness about 1 nm on the substrate, which enhances thecell-to-substrate interaction. The Raman spectrum in reveals a D/G-ratioof about 0.5-1 and displays the absence of 2D-peak. This ratioattributed to the disclosed coating combined with the absence of 2D-peakdistinguishes the disclosed 2DAC differently from the structure ofgraphene and diamond coatings.

Example embodiments provide a method of growing and proliferating stemcells in a neutral state as follows.

Stem cells are seeded on the 2DAC coated surface and cultured instandard stem cell media until desired concentration is reached. Thecells can be detached from the surface and diluted onto multiplesurfaces for cell expansion. The rate of cell growth is equivalent orlarger than that of fibroblast feeder layers or Matrigel.

The cells do not display any form of differentiation but remain in theneutral undifferentiated state. The nanoscale roughness andhydrophilicity of the 2DAC allows the cells to adhere and spread similarto what has been observed in nanocrystalline graphene.¹⁶

Example embodiments provide a method of controlling and accelerating thestem cell differentiation into desired lineage as follows.

Differentiation is induced by growth factors added to the stem cellmedium. The growth factors determine the lineage. For example, forosteogenic differentiation, the growth factors would consist ofdexamethasone and β-glycerolphosphate. The growth factors are readilyadsorbed on the surface and delivered to the cells at an increased ratecompared to standard tissue culture plates, glass or metal substrates.The mechanical properties of the amorphous carbon enhance thecell-to-substrate interaction which in turn enhances thedifferentiation.

As outlined above, growth factors are automatically adsorbed onto thesurface of the disclosed 2DAC during culturing cells. Accordingly,disclosed embodiments provide that growth factors are automaticallyadsorbed onto the disclosed 2DAC surface at a higher rate as compared toa non-coated surface. FIG. 13 shows a mechanism of increased uptake ofgrowth factors in stem cells on a 2DAC coated substrate.

FIG. 14 shows a comparison of the protein uptake on a 2DAC coatedsubstrate and a non-coated substrate. FIG. 14 illustrates an AFM phasescan of protein-functionalized non-coated titanium (upper left) and2DAC-coated titanium (upper right). Adsorption of growth factors isenhanced on the disclosed 2DAC compared to other substrates (lower),i.e., the protein uptake on the disclosed 2DAC coated surface issignificantly enhanced compared to non-coated substrates.

The AFM phase scan in FIG. 4 reveals a lack of protein on the uncoatedtitanium on the left, while the 2DAC-coated titanium on the right isreadily adsorbing proteins. It should be appreciated that the whiletitanium is illustrated, other metals such as titanium alloys, stainlesssteel, gold, silver, cobalt-chromium alloys, niobium tantalum; ceramicssuch as aluminum oxide, titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, silicates,hydroxyapatites, calcium phosphates; and polymers such as polyethylene,polyamide, polymethylmethacrylate polytetrafluroethylene, among othermaterials, may be utilized without departing from the teachings of theinvention.

Implants can be coated with 2DAC for increased biocompatibility andintegration with local host tissue. This biocompatibility manifestsitself in reduced inflammatory response from host tissue, reduced bloodclotting and activation of platelets in exposed blood vessels, and/orenhanced growth of cells on the coated implant surface, thereby forminga stronger bond between tissue and implant.

FIG. 15 displays an uncoated and 2DAC coated surface of a cardiovascularstent implant. The uncoated cardiovascular implant can cause plateletattachment and activation. Activated platelets propagate coagulationfactors causing a blood clot to form. The 2DAC coating reduces theattachment and activation of platelets and hereby, in turn, reduces therisk of thrombosis.

FIG. 16 displays how the 2DAC coating can improve the integrationbetween implant and bone tissue. The 2DAC coating improves the cellattachment, reduces inflammation and enhances osteogenic differentiationof nearby cells. These factors leads to a stronger and continuous bondbetween implant and bone tissue.

FIG. 17 shows comparisons for nitric oxide (NO) and TNF-α production incells stressed by LPS (Lipopolysaccharides) on a 2DAC coated glasscompared to cells on bare glass.

Both NO and TNF-α are indicators of systemic inflammation. The resultsshown in FIG. 5 indicate that the inflammation will be reduced.

By employing 2DAC as growth substrate, the practical difficulties andthe labor time and costs are reduced, and the contamination concerns areeliminated.

The disclosed 2DAC can be directly grown on a substrate as outlinedabove. The direct growth of the amorphous carbon has the benefit of highadhesion strength to the substrate (with an adhesion energy of >200J/m²). On the contrary, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) graphene isrequired to be transferred to growth substrate and has a very pooradhesion of about 10 J/m².

The production of 2DAC may be scaled up to a large area directly on anysubstrate. The growth of the disclosed 2DAC may be carried out below500° C. allowing it to be compatible with many biomedical implants andapplications.

The disclosed amorphous carbon does not pose any toxicity issues forbiological tissue and has already been approved for biomedical implantsby the FDA. Furthermore, several carbon coated stents have been promotedfor clinical use in Europe: BioDiamond® (Plasma Chem), Carbostent®(Sorin), Diamond Flex® (Phytis) and Dylyn® (Bekaert). Thus, 2DAC issuitable to be used in a clinical setting even though the 2DAC isdifferent than a mere carbon coating, as discussed above.

Having described the many embodiments of the present disclosure indetail, it will be apparent that modifications and variations arepossible without departing from the scope of the invention defined inthe appended claims. Furthermore, it should be appreciated that allexamples in the present disclosure, while illustrating many embodimentsof the invention, are provided as non-limiting examples and are,therefore, not to be taken as limiting the various aspects soillustrated.

REFERENCES

The following references are referred to above and are incorporatedherein by reference:

-   1. Ferrari, A. C. et al. “Interpretation of Raman spectra of    disordered and amorphous carbon.” Physical Review B 61, 14095-14107    (2000).-   2. Robertson, J. “Ultrathin carbon coatings for magnetic storage    technology.” Thin Solid Films 383, 81-88 (2001).-   3. Hu, S. et al. “Proton transport through one-atom-thick crystals.”    Nature 516, 227-230 (2014).-   4. Das, S. et al. “Measurements of adhesion energy of graphene to    metallic substrates.” Carbon 59, 121-129 (2013).-   5. Schriver, M. et al. “Graphene as a Long-Term Metal Oxidation    Barrier: Worse Than Nothing” ACS Nano 7, 5763-5768 (2013).-   6. Wang, J. S. et al. “The mechanical performance of DLC films on    steel substrates.” Thin Solid Films 325, 163-174 (1998).-   7. Leng, Y. X. et al. “Mechanical properties and platelet adhesion    behavior of diamond-like carbon films synthesized by pulsed vacuum    arc plasma deposition.” Surface Science 531, 177-184 (2003).-   8. Maguire, P. D. et al. “Mechanical stability, corrosion    performance and bioresponse of amorphous diamond-like carbon for    medical stents and guidewires.” Diamond and Related Materials 14,    1277-1288 (2005).-   9. Marcon, et. al. “The head-disk interface roadmap to an areal    density of 4 Tbit/in² .” Advances in Tribology 2013, 1-8 (2013).-   10. Discher, D. E., Mooney, D. J. & Zandstra, P. W. “Growth Factors,    Matrices, and Forces Combine and Control Stem Cells.” Science 324,    1673-1677 (2009).-   11. Spradling, A., Drummond-Barbosa, D. & Kai, T. “Stem cells find    their niche.” Nature 414, 98-104 (2001).-   12. Murry, C. E. & Keller, G. “Differentiation of Embryonic Stem    Cells to Clinically Relevant Populations: Lessons from Embryonic    Development.” Cell 132, 661-680 (2008).-   13. Engler, A. J., Sen, S., Sweeney, H. L. & Discher, D. E. “Matrix    Elasticity Directs Stem Cell Lineage Specification.” Cell 126,    677-689 (2006).-   14. Dalby, M. J. et al. “The control of human mesenchymal cell    differentiation using nanoscale symmetry and disorder.” Nature    Materials 6, 997-1003 (2007).-   15. Trappmann, B. et al. “Extracellular-matrix tethering regulates    stem-cell fate.” Nature Materials 11, 642-649 (2012).-   16. Lee, H. et al. “Establishment of feeder-free culture system for    human induced pluripotent stem cell on DAS nanocrystalline    graphene.” Scientific Reports 6, 20708 (2016).-   17. Choi, W. J. et al. “Effects of substrate conductivity on cell    morphogenesis and proliferation using tailored, atomic layer    deposition-grown ZnO thin films.” Scientific Reports 5, 9974 (2015).

All documents, patents, journal articles and other materials cited inthe present application are incorporated herein by reference.

While the present disclosure has been disclosed with references tocertain embodiments, numerous modification, alterations, and changes tothe described embodiments are possible without departing from the sphereand scope of the present disclosure, as defined in the appended claims.Accordingly, it is intended that the present disclosure not be limitedto the described embodiments, but that it has the full scope defined bythe language of the following claims, and equivalents thereof.

What is claimed is:
 1. A two-dimensional (2D) amorphous carbon film,wherein the 2D amorphous carbon film has a crystallinity (C)≤0.8.
 2. Thetwo-dimensional (2D) amorphous carbon film of claim 1, wherein the 2Damorphous carbon film has a resistivity of 0.01 to 1000 Ω-cm, inclusive.3. A two-dimensional (2D) amorphous carbon film, wherein the 2Damorphous carbon film has a crystallinity (C)<1 and a sp³/sp² bond ratiois 0.2 or less.
 4. An article comprising: a substrate; and atwo-dimensional (2D) amorphous carbon film disposed on a surface of thesubstrate, wherein the 2D amorphous carbon film has a crystallinity(C)≤0.8.
 5. The article of claim 4, wherein the substrate is selectedfrom the group consisting catalytic metal, non-catalytic metal, glass,plastic, bioactive material, tissue culture plate and an oxide of amaterial.
 6. The article of claim 4, wherein an adhesion force betweenthe surface of the substrate upon which the 2D amorphous carbon film isdisposed and the 2D amorphous carbon film is ≥200 J/m2.
 7. A method offorming the article of claim 4, the method comprising: decomposing aprecursor gas to generate at least one decomposed species; and formingthe 2D amorphous carbon film from the decomposed species on a surface ofthe substrate, wherein the precursor gas comprises a carbon-containinggas.
 8. The method of claim 7, comprising: heating the substrate to atemperature of ≤500° C. prior to the forming.
 9. The method of claim 7,wherein the 2D amorphous carbon film is formed as a continuous film oversubstantially the entire substrate surface.
 10. The method of claim 7,comprising: separating the 2D amorphous carbon film from the surface ofthe substrate to obtain a free-standing 2D amorphous carbon film. 11.The method of claim 7, comprising: transferring a free-standing 2Damorphous carbon film onto a surface of another substrate.
 12. Atwo-dimensional amorphous carbon (2DAC) coating having an atomicstructure consisting of non-hexagonal carbon rings and hexagonal carbonrings, and having a ratio of the hexagonal carbon rings to thenon-hexagonal carbon rings is less than 1.0.
 13. The coating of claim12, wherein the coating is an implant coating.
 14. The coating of claim13, wherein the implant coating forms a contact angle of about 60° witha surface of an implant.
 15. The coating of claim 13, wherein theimplant coating adheres to an implant with an adhesion energy of about200 J/m² or greater.
 16. The coating of claim 12, wherein thenon-hexagonal carbon rings are in the form of one selected from thegroup consisting of: 4-membered carbon rings, 5-membered carbon rings,7-membered carbon rings, 8-membered carbon rings and 9-membered carbonrings.
 17. The coating of claim 12, comprising: an optical transparencyequal to or greater than 98% at a wavelength of 550 nm or higher.
 18. Amethod of differentiating stem cells into specialized cells, comprising:coating a surface of a substrate with two-dimensional amorphous carbon(2DAC); disposing a seed layer on the surface of the substrate coatedwith 2DAC; and adsorbing growth factors in a stem cell medium onto thesurface of the substrate coated with 2DAC.
 19. The method of claim 18,comprising: growing additional stem cells from the seed layer until adesired concentration of the stem cells is reached.
 20. The method ofclaim 18, wherein the growth factors are adsorbed onto the surface ofthe substrate coated with 2DAC at a faster rate than compared tostandard tissue culture substrates.